Function And Production Of Insulin

Function And Production Of Insulin Insulin is a protein produced by islet cells in the pancreas. Insulin helps human body regulate glucose in the body. Insulin reduces the use of fats as energy (gluconeogenesis) by utilizing glucose to produce energy. Patient with diabetes require insulin to keep the blood glucose levels under control. (1) The first successful insulin was produced from ox pancreas (bovine insulin). Bovine insulin is similar to human insulin however bovine chemical composition is slightly different hence the body immune system produces antibody to reject bovine insulin. (4) Identical human insulin was produced by recombinant DNA technology, by inserting the insulin gene into a vector to produce human insulin. Production of human insulin by recombinant technology was accomplished and commercialized in 1982 by Genentech and Eli Lilly. (2) Function Carbohydrates consumed are broken down into glucose which then resides in the bloodstreams. This causes the body blood glucose (BBG) level to rise. The pancreas senses the rise in BBG level therefore, secretes insulin into the bloodstreams. The cell will absorb the released insulin and bind to it. Cells that are attached with insulin are able to absorb glucose from the bloodstream and turned it into energy. This energy is vital for new cell growth and repairing damage cells. The main function of insulin is to move glucose from the bloodstream into the body cells and convert glucose into energy. (3) Chosen Host Escherichia coli (E. coli) E. coli was used as a host to produce recombinant insulin since 1982. E. coli was widely used as host for the production of recombinant insulin because it was well studied, many vectors available and good characteristic. (5) E. coli advantages and suitability for producing insulin. (6) Fast growth rate e.g. able to reach optimal yield within hours of induction. Economical to grow and undemanding growth conditions. Good protein production rate. Can be frozen for storage and thawed immediately for usage. Cellular structure E. coli is a rod-shaped bacterium measuring 1.8 microns in length and 0.8 microns in width. E. coli consist of: (7) Inner and outer cell membrane Cell wall Periplasm Flagella Pili Cytoplasm Chromosome The two main structures are cytoplasm and periplasm, where the production of recombinant insulin usually takes place. (5) Structure Details and functions Cytoplasm (7) The cytoplasm contains most of the major component such as chromosomal DNA, RNA, nucleoid and ribosome. Cytoplasm provides support for the internal structure and provides a medium of suspension. Metabolic reaction and protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm. Periplasm (7) The periplasm is about 10nm thick. Located between the inner and outer membrane. Periplasm contains 80,000 proteins essential for nutrient binding, enzyme detoxifying and degradative and electron transport. Growth strategy for the production process Insulin is produce through genetic engineering. Firstly the gene producing human insulin is isolated and copied. A circular shape DNA (plasmid) is removed from the bacterium cell, and then using special proteins to cut open the plasmid ring. The insulin gene is inserted into the open plasmid ring and closed again using special proteins hence the human insulin gene is now combined with the bacterium DNA plasmid. The recombinant plasmid is then inserted into the bacteria cytoplasm using a very small needle syringe. (8) High level protein production often leads to formation of inclusion bodies which accumulated through protein folding. (5) The chain approach method was used to produce human insulin in recombinant E. coli. Two different expression vectors were constructed carrying either insulin A- or B-chain gene fused to a shortened and inactive É £-interferon gene allowing a stable cytoplasmic production of recombinant insulin in E. coli in the form of inclusion bodies. (2) Recovery of biologically active insulin from inclusion bodies has some advantages for example inclusion bodies accumulates protein in the cytoplasm to a much higher level, inclusion body could initially be isolated in a purified and concentrated state with just centrifugation process and final insulin concentration in E. coli can be increased significantly by high cell density culture (HCDC). (5) The HCDC technique was used to grow recombinant E. coli in a two stage cyclic fed batch bioreactor. After the expression system is developed, HCDC is carried out using synthetic medium with glucose as the sole carbon source to increase the recombinant protein concentration. (5) The induction of recombinant protein production was carried out by a temperature à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬shift from 30 to 42oC. Expressions of the A- and B-chain genes are controlled using a strong promoter (bacteriopage lambda) therefore, protein are produce efficiently by temperature shift. (2) The first step of purification to obtain human insulin was to centrifuge the solution to isolate the inclusion body. The inclusion bodies were then recovered from the centrifuge continued by dissolving the inclusion bodies using formic acid. Then use cyanogens bromide to cleave the peptide bond by hydrolysing the peptide bond for separation of insulin from the fusion protein partner. Finally the conversion to human insulin is performed by proteolytic removal of the connecting C-peptide and disulfide link. (2) The maximum productivity is achieved when the growth and production phase are separated hence a two stage cyclic fed batch bioreactor is used. The first stage is use to grow the cell to an optimum cell density followed by the second stage where the growth is suppressed by chemical and production of protein is maximize. (5) The cyclic fed batch is used to ensure that toxins and biomass do not accumulate, extend the productive phase, control the growth rate and optimize the product synthesis. (9) The by-product produced from the process was monomeric and multimeric forms of A- and B-chain connected by incorrect disulfide bridges. These by-products are collected too undergo sulfitolysis for recycling purposes. (2) How to analyse the growth process Off-line analysis methods were used to analyse the growth process. Samples were taken from the process every 30minute to be used to determine the optical density600, dry cell weight, dissolved oxygen tension and concentration of glucose. Result from the test are compiled and plotted in graphs therefore the growth process could be analysed. (2) Possible problems and solution The major problem in production of insulin by recombinant E. coli is the rapid intracellular degradation of the recombinant protein. Insulin is then produced as a fusion protein with a protein partner that would direct the recombinant gene product towards the formation of inclusion bodies. (2) Proteolytic degradation and over expressing protein can destabilize the protein hence protein are produced in the form of inclusion bodies which are complicated and expensive denaturing and refolding process during the downstream processing. To overcome this problem, recombinant protein could be targeted at the periplasm instead of the cytoplasm hence avoided formation of inclusion body. (5) In the process HCDC would cause several problems for example the limitation of dissolved oxygen due to high cell density and off gas accumulation which reduces the growth rate and enhance formation of acetate acid. The use of different promoters to regulate the level of expression and use of oxygen enriched air would minimize the problem. (5) During the HCDC process, overproduction of recombinant proteins often results in cell filamentation and stagnant growth. The filamentation of cells consequently lowers productivity and final cell concentration. The problem could be overcome by suppressing the cell filamentation, by co-expressing the E.coli ftsA and ftsZ genes. (5) Escherichia coli limitations E. coli is not appropriate to produce large and complex proteins which contain disulfide bonds or protein that require post translation modification. (5) Acetic acid is produce by E. coli when glucose is used as a carbon source. (5) Secretion of protein by E. coli is a complex process often fails due to incomplete translocation across the membrane and insufficient capacity of the export machinery.(10)

Wwe’s Handling of the Chris Benoit Scandle

To What Extent, if Any, Had WWE Distanced Itself From Chris Benoit? How Had In-Ring Performances Been Affected? Chris Benoit, before his tragic death, was a world renowned, top card professional wrestler for mainstream professional wrestling company, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE); formerly World Wrestling Federation (WWF). As WWE were broadcasting a tribute show in Benoit’s memory, news which addressed why the wrestler had passed began circulating. The answer to that question was indeed chilling and has led WWE to disassociating itself with their former icon and Benoit’s reputation hitting an all time low† (Ring Surf, 2009). Reports to this day reveal that, over a period of days, Benoit had choked his wife and smothered his son both to death, before taking his own life on June 2007. Previous to these events, WWE had always been under scrutiny. From the most respectable organizations, their content was deemed violent and sexist (Consoli and Torpey-Kemph, 1999 ).Also, since Chairman, Vince McMahon jr, publicly stated that professional wrestling matches are booked with predetermined outcomes, a butterfly effect-like chain of other various emerging news stories slowly began to unravel. More of which attempted to reveal further secrets behind the wrestling industry; namely depicting the neglectful treatment of performers. When journalists found Benoit’s story they had plenty of choice on what to blame; drugs, roid rage, etc. However, everyone knew that the WWE must be at fault. Lachlan, et al. 2009) states that; â€Å"the popularity attained by professional wrestling makes its presence impossible to ignore and concerns about its potential influence difficult to avoid†. For these reasons the WWE is always under high risk surveillance by press and critics. On February 2006, in response to another high profile wrestler’s untimely death, the company put a wellness policy in place, which tests for banned substances and perfor ms annual cardiac evaluations. The policy gained a positive reception and WWE looked to slowly disassociate itself from the reports that claimed to expose the wrestling industry.After Benoit’s death, most were looking to the wellness policy for an explanation; the US House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform requested that WWE hand in any material regarding the wellness policy, which had always been dealt with privately. Ashamedly, WWE had shortly after, suspended 11 wrestlers for violation of the policy and from then on have taken more stern measures when dealing with violations. It was ultimately found, by the Sports Legacy Institute, that Benoit had a severe case of chronic traumatic encephalopathy; â€Å"his brain showed an advanced form of dementia† (ABC News, 2007).ABC News (2007) quotes the neurosurgeon in question as saying that â€Å"while he can’t be certain that the brain damage caused Benoit’s actions, he believes it is the leading c ause†. Contrastingly and rather unsurprisingly, WWE have said in a later statement; â€Å"Today’s attempt to explain that Chris Benoit’s murder of his family was possibly caused by some form of dementia as a result of alleged concussions is speculative† (USA Today, 2007). Representing his WWE; Vince McMahon, in an interview with CNN (2009), further claims that these findings â€Å"haven’t even been critiqued by other members of the scientific community†.Regardless of the validity of the Sports Legacy Institute’s study; quick to dismiss the possibility of concussion, mental deterioration and any slight mistake or misconduct on the part of WWE, McMahon’s product falls under much more pressure. Continuing his interview, Vince McMahon defends that Benoit’s performances takes no responsibility for his actions. As a company constantly in the public eye, the WWE have banned chair shots to the head, but believe they have nothing more to answer for; â€Å"it’s what it is in the ring† he says.Upon learning of the tragedy, Vince had immediately recorded a public follow up statement, to air just before their next tri-weekly broadcast. Among his sincere concern for those involved, he assures (Mr. Mcmahons’ speach about Chris Benoit, 2007); â€Å"the facts of this horrific tragedy are now apparent. Therefore†¦ there will be no mention of Mr Benoit’s name tonight†. Referring to Vince McMahon’s CNN interview (2009), he explains â€Å"anyone who becomes a murderer, I mean, you want to disassociate yourself with that individual†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ â€Å"Chris Benoit has not, and will not define the WWE†.However, Vince McMahon and the WWE have since been under fire from wrestling fans and observers who inadvertently claim that through disassociation, the tragic incident involving Chris Benoit has defined how the WWE has grown and in many ways hidden over the years. Ther e is a net wide view from smarks (smart fans), that in an attempt to disassociate Benoit from the company, WWE have allowed vital and simple aspects of pro wrestling’s performance art to go with him. An online fan posts; â€Å"Benoit German suplex banned from WWE? † (Yahoo Answers, 2010) â€Å"No chops? (Balderson, 2010) WWE is NOT wrestling†, states another.Certain professional wrestling moves, created a long time ago and already interwoven into the fabric of the industry, as with many other wrestlers, had over time become synonymous with Chris Benoit. I have conducted a content analysis study using two samples of WWE PPV events to explore; to what extent, if any, WWE’s disassociation from Chris Benoit has had an effect on the content of their wrestling matches and the performance of their contracted wrestlers. WWE has always walked a thin, interesting line concerning the content of professional wrestling among their programming.Former professional wrest ler, Laurence De Garis remarks the following, regarding the (then) WWF’s 1999 prospectus; â€Å"Interestingly, professional wrestling is nowhere to be found in the description. The WWF’s definition of itself represents a shift in business models away from a sports-based, live-events business and more toward a television show† (Sammond, 2005). Such motives give the impression that the WWE may have assumed they had nothing to lose by disassociating itself from Chris Benoit in such a manner. In the past few years† he explains, â€Å"there has been emphasis on â€Å"mic work† and acting ability, as a professional wrestler I am primarily interested in â€Å"having matches†, hopefully good ones†. â€Å"Sampling in content analysis is subject to the same concerns it would be in any quantitative study. It should be both representative and significant† (Rose, 2007). Within my study, I was comparing two different time periods within (argu ably) a sports show; each sample I had taken had to be representative of a full year.As Rose (2007) states; â€Å"which sampling method you choose – or which combination of methods – will depend on the implications of your research question†. My research question as posed is representative of the highest quality sample, so as to investigate what kind, if any care is put into influencing the show. The sports show I am researching has designated Pay-Per-View events near monthly throughout the year. I have therefore chosen to analyse four PPV’s per sample I have. This equates to 26 hours of analysis. â€Å"Coding means attaching a set of descriptive labels (or categories) to the images† (Rose, 2007).The purpose of my study is to analyse how the relationship between Benoit and WWE has changed. As people have suggested that WWE has made an unnecessary effort to erase connotations of Benoit from any further matches, I have focused specifically on wrestli ng moves used regularly by Benoit. My analysis is categorised into three moves well used by Benoit and additionally three categories which document the use of any similar variation of those moves. These additional categories however are not as objective, as I have taken a subjective stance in determining whether they are to be counted or not.As Hansen, Cottle, Negrine & Newbold (1998) iterate; â€Å"content analysis, of course, could never be objective in a ‘value-free’ sense of the word: it does not analyse everything there is to analyse in a text (no method could, nor would there be any purpose in trying)†. Many wrestlers in the WWE have similar move sets and no two matches are ever the same. What is evident from personal experience with the WWE is that the moves I have coded aren’t necessarily only used by Chris Benoit. â€Å"A more sophisticated analysis can be developed by exploring the relations between different coding categories† (Rose, 2007 ).And as such, I had coded a further factoring category which would specify by which wrestler the move had been used; allowing me to see patterns in my results and explain further, any changes to how wrestlers are performing. Here are the written results, in chronological order of events, to accompany my graphs; emerging from the analysis I have conducted: Vengeance 2005 -Knife Edge Chop: 13. Michaels: 10, Jericho: 3 -Chop Variation: 3. Benjamin: 2, Christian: 1 -German Suplex: 3. Angle: 3 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 0 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 0 -Crossface Variations: 2. Carlito: 1, Benjamin: 1 Survivor Series 2005 Knife Edge Chop: 26. Benoit: 4, Flair: 15, Michaels: 5, Masters: 2 -Chop Variation: 3. JBL: 2, Show: 1 -German Suplex: 4. Benoit: 4 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 0 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 0 -Crossface Variations: 3. Booker: 1, Angle: 2 Royal Rumble 2006 -Knife Edge Chop: 61. Noble: 8, Flair: 8, Benoit: 23, Carlito: 1, Tatanka: 12, Murdock: 1, Mich aels: 8 -Chop Variation: 4. Show: 3, Viscera: 1 -German Suplex: 5. Benoit: 4, Angle: 1 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 1. Benoit: 1 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 1. Benoit: 1 -Crossface Variations: 3. Murdock: 1, Michaels: 1, Cena: 1 Wrestlemania (22) 2006 -Knife Edge Chop: 24.Flair: 8, Benoit: 3, Stratus: 4, Michaels: 9 -Chop Variation: 2. Flair: 1, Finlay: 1 -German Suplex: 8. Benoit: 3, Angle: 5 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 0 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 2. Benoit: 2 -Crossface Variations: 2. Cena: 2 24/06/07: Benoit’s death Summerslam 2008 -Knife Edge Chop: 0 -Chop Variation: 1. Kingston: 1 -German Suplex:0 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 0 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 0 -Crossface Variations: 4. MVP: 1, Marella: 2, Cena: 1 Survivor Series 2008 -Knife Edge Chop: 5. Michaels: 5 -Chop Variation: 1. Kingston: 1 -German Suplex: 0 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 0 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 0 -Crossface Variations: 1.Cena: 1 Royal Rumble 2009 -Knife Edg e Chop: 0 -Chop Variation: 9. Phoenix: 1, Finlay: 1, Kingston: 2, Show: 5 -German Suplex: 0 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 0 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 0 -Crossface Variations: 2. JBL: 1, Cena: 1 Wrestlemania (25) 2009 -Knife Edge Chop: 21. Snuka: 1, Steamboat: 2, Jericho: 1, Flair: 5, Michaels: 12 -Chop Variation: 9. Snuka: 2, Steamboat: 3, Show: 4 -German Suplex: 0 -Similar Belly to Back Suplex: 0 -â€Å"Crippler† Crossface: 1. Michaels: 1 -Crossface Variations: 2. M Hardy: 1, Cena: 1 These findings draw a clear line in the sand from the date of Benoit’s death as to how he is to be treated in WWE.Findings blatantly point to the Knife Edge Chop. Chris Benoit was relatively famous for this, and throughout my 2005-2006, pre death sample analysis, it was used 124 times. Whereas in my 2008-2009, post death sample analysis, almost no one on the roster was using it. Lack of this move however, did seem to be a business decision. At Wrestlemania 09; the WWE’s m ost prominent PPV of the year, veteran wrestler, Shawn Michaels had his retirement match. As such, out of respect for Michaels, it seems that Vince and the WWE had given him an exception to the otherwise enforced rule; as it is also prominent in Michaels’ repertoire.It comes to mention that Wrestlemania also played host to several guest veterans; for whose match had also given exception to the rule, despite that one regular wrestler was involved in their match, also using the move. However I can’t disregard that which proves, overall, Knife Edge Chops and German Suplexes are being removed from WWE wrestling. Over the history of professional wrestling, these specific moves have been a must-have in almost every technical (particularly British) wrestler’s arsenal.Nowadays WWE remains the powerhouse of the pro wrestling world; therefore many new and inexperienced companies will follow them by example and other rising wrestlers may eliminate these moves from their re pertoire to present themselves as a more viable WWE acquisition. Thereby WWE are affecting, not just themselves but the entire industry. As said above, the WWE, and following that, many subsequent companies, are caring more about out of ring performance, marketability and self promotion. Sammond (2005) specifies; â€Å"Inside the world of professional wrestling, many veterans and old timers lament that the â€Å"art† of wrestling has disappeared†.Whereas modern wrestling companies may in fact see this as progress. Eras and changes are frequent in wrestling, and most famously, the WWE. Only a few generations ago, â€Å"the wrestling business was a closely protected, closed society. Its secrets were strongly guarded† (Sammond, 2005). Changes can yet be caused by many things. Perhaps most popular; ‘The Attitude era’ was the result of one wrestler’s character push; Stone Cold Steve Austin. Upon realising that fans were responding to this archetyp al rebel over other faces (fan favourites), the WWE responded with edgier material.Though, this era inevitably saw its end when other factors came into play. The incident involving Chris Benoit however, had caused many to monitor WWE’s content. It is for this reason that the WWE has done its best to stay above any discreditable behaviour; taking any other action they feel necessary to remove themselves from under the microscope. Enter, the era of ‘PG’ [along with the smark boom]. I am very happy with the validity of my method. However there are certain things I would be able to research further to better present an answer.Using the same methods, it would be useful to analyse both, recent WWE years and other wrestling companies. Investigating how much influence WWE does in fact have over pro wrestling, and how they are evolving. My findings indicate that WWE’s reaction has given reason to remove any reference from future competition. Although we can believe this is a fickle publicity decision, these statistics reiterate that Benoit will never be put back on his pedestal; â€Å"he’s going to be known as the family killer first and great wrestler second† (Balderson, 2010).

Secret Facts About Essay on Social Issues That Only the Pros Know Exist

Secret Facts About Essay on Social Issues That Only the Pros Know Exist There are a couple of main things you want to learn about before you even begin picking social issues essay topics. When you compose a social issue essay, it is very important to demonstrate your private view of the issue. When you get a task to compose an essay on a social issue, you're given a chance to open an exciting discourse. When deciding on your social problems topic, don't forget that it's always far better to write about something you're already more or less acquainted with. Therefore, before deciding upon any topic, make certain you select a topic you find interesting and one which you can research and write on with ease. It is wise to choose a topic that you may easily research on. It is often as easy as narrowing your topic. Things You Should Know About Essay on Social Issues As a consequence, social issues can be raised by the unequal distribution of funding between public schools, including that seen in the United States of america. Our service is entirely confidential and moreover, it will probably be far cheaper than you may think. Secondly, employment service should supply the unemployed with funds to begin their own organization. Of course, before providing the loan, it must ensure that the borrower's business plan is competitive and meets the general requirements. Urbanization denotes the population shift from rural to urban locations. Climate change may be a social problem since it is known to be due to human activities like pollutio n which then impacts the weather patterns of distinct regions. International warming is a great case of climate change that's due to human activities over recent years. Issues with the environment are almost directly associated with poverty and difficulties with education. Essay on Social Issues Secrets That No One Else Knows About Social media has been among the more important causes of suicidal thoughts. Social networking encourages the false images of how everything ought to be in an ideal world. They has availed an easy and convenient mode of advertising which is quite effective. Social networking is the main reason for lots of the world's problems and solutions. Issues like homosexuality create a difference in how people react in society. Fashion and lifestyle trends can have an effect on how both teenagers and grownups communicate with one another in society. Social problems aren't universal to each society and have a tendency to change rapidly. The Chronicles of Essay on Social Issues Poverty in the society is the main source of a number of other social difficulties. Deficiency of education can have serious consequences on kids and adults and can influence health, living conditions and societal conditions. Deficiency of educationLack of education is among the causes of social issues. The majority of the students are in huge debt on account of the increasing tuition prices. What You Should Do to Find Out About Essay on Social Issues Before You're Left Behind Social issues transform almost every facet of society. Many social issues are debated for ages. The problem of pornography is also some social problems that may affect how folks interact with one another. The social justice issues can be classified beneath a list of social policy problems and social awareness difficulties. For a social issue to be classified as an issue, it has to be getting attention from the general public. There are a number of methods people use to combat social troubles. As stated by the structural perspective, society is seen as a complicated system of structures that interact to be able to carry out various necessary functions. You should have your reasons, and our principal concern is that you find yourself getting a great grade. The Benefits of Essay on Social Issues Apparently, bulk of the population in america earn their living by working for somebody and plenty of families in our country are based on the salary. Hate crimes are a developing issue especially in school settings due to the young populations which exist. Kids, kids and youths of the nation are future of the country so they're the principal target to increase awareness about any social problems. Pollution is an important social problem everywhere on account of the presence of human financial activities like industrial activity and day to day activities. Gossip, Lies and Essay on Social Issues Writing an intriguing essay about trendy topics is an opportun ity to reveal your understanding of earth. Social media can be seen in a variety of approaches therefore can be a good topic for a college essay. The following are a few steps for writing a great social essay. The social issues research papers may appear easy to write in comparison with different topics, but still it demands an extremely creative strategy, a big quantity of curiosity and capacity to think beyond the box and search data in unconventional sources. There are a few crucial things you will need to understand so as to write up a fantastic essay. You can input ideas into your essay, but be certain they are in direct connection to the facts that you've already offered in the essay. Though you essay may contain very great info, one false bit of information can mess up your whole essay. The list might go on and it's not a all-inclusive list. What You Should Do to Find Out About Essay on Social Issues Before You're Left Behind There's, naturally, a limit on the variety of pages even our very best writers can produce with a pressing deadline, but usually, we figure out how to satisfy all the clients seeking urgent assistance. There is, in addition, the problem of pressure to attain degrees at the conclusion of the students' college education, and therefore, there's almost always a continuous struggle, hence the students become stressed to the amount of depression. Sometimes it may be overwhelming to the students that they're made to opt from the program. Students have a propensity of postponing their assignments on account of the distractions caused by their fun life.

Elements of a valid contract in Business Law - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2818 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Narrative essay Level High school Tags: Contract Law Essay Did you like this example? Introduction All contracts are agreements but not all agreements are contracts. A contract is a binding agreement between two or more individuals that is enforceable by law. The Law of Contract in Malaysia is governed by the Contracts Act 1950. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Elements of a valid contract in Business Law" essay for you Create order Section 2(h)[1] states that an agreement enforceable by law is a contract. Offer and acceptance analysis are the traditional approaches used in contract law to determine whether an agreement exist between two parties. The others are consideration and intention to create legal relationship between the parties in forming a contract. Section 10 (1)[2] states that all agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. Verbal and written contracts It could be written or even be in oral. Contracts can be written by using formal or informal terms, or entirely verbal or spoken. It is a promise made between two or more parties that which allow the courts to make judgement. Some contracts have to be in writing, for example credit contracts, insurance contracts, agreements to buy and sell real estate, and agreements to buy cars from registered dealers. Standard form contracts Standard form contracts are commonly used by businesses that provide services to large numbers of customers. Your dealings with your electricity company, your insurer, your bank and so on are governed by this type of contract. They are offered on a take it or leave it basis you wont be given the opportunity to quibble over details youre not happy with. The type of agreement chosen to be elaborated in this assignment is the service agreement which is also a standard form contract. Elements of a Valid Contract The basic elements in the formation of a contract are offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity, intention to create legal relation, free consent, certainty and valid object. The relevant provisions of the Contract Law Act 1950 for the following elements are as follows: Offer Section 2(a)[3] states that when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to the act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal; Acceptance Section 2(b)[4] states when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted: a proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise; Consideration Section 2(d)[5] states when, at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise; Capacity Section 11[6] states every person is competent to contract who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind, and is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject. Intention to create legal relation Such an element is not denoted compulsory to form a valid contract in the Malaysian context of Contract Act did not. In this respect, the Malaysian constitution permits the use of English common law which is the Civil Law Act 1956. Free consent Section 14[7] states consent is said to be so caused when it would not have been given but for the existence of such coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation, or mistake. Certainty Section 30[8] states agreements, the meaning of which is not certain, or capable of being made certain, are void. Valid object Section 24[9] states the consideration or object of an agreement is lawful, unlessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  (a) it is forbidden by a law; (b) it is of such a nature that, if permitted, it would defeat any law; (c) it is fraudulent; (d) it involves or implies injury to the person or property of another; or (e) the court regards it as immoral, or opposed to public policy. In each of the above cases, the consideration or object of an agreement is said to be unlawful. Every agreement of which the object or consideration is unlawful is void. I have enclosed an example of agreement and the brochure of the plans by the service provider to this document. It is a service agreement with P1.Com. A service agreement is a type of agreement that falls under the broader realm of contract law. It defines the relationship between a customer and a service provider. In short, a service agreement outlines what services are to be provided, when they are to be provided, their costs, and th e responsibilities of each party involved in the agreement. Offer A display of goods in a shop window is an invitation to treat. An invitation to treat is not an offer, it is only an invitation to make an offer. Advertisement can amount either to offers or to invitations to treat. If an advertisement is an offer then a person who accepts the offer makes a contract with the person who advertised. If an advertisement is only an invitation to treat then it cannot be accepted in such a way that a contract is thereby formed. An offer should not be made by a person who is not fully prepared to take legal consequences of its being accepted. But a response to an invitation to treat cannot result in a binding contract. The offer can be seen here when P1.com provides the brochure of the plans currently held (brochure attached to this document for reference). If a customer is interested, customer would then be given the registration form. In here customer would be able to read the agreement particulars at the back of the registration form. Should cust omer agree to these terms, they may proceed to fill in their particulars, select the plan which they wish to subscribe to and seal the agreement with a signature on the registration form. Acceptance [10]A promise or act on the part of an offeree indicating a willingness to be bound by the terms and conditions contained in an offer. Also, the acknowledgment of the drawee that binds the drawee to the terms of a draft. There are 3 types of acceptance. It may be conditional, express, or implied. Conditional Acceptance : A conditional acceptance, sometimes called a qualified acceptance, occurs when a person to whom an offer has been made tells the offeror that he or she is willing to agree to the offer provided that some changes are made in its terms or that some condition or event occurs. This type of acceptance operates as a counteroffer. A counteroffer must be accepted by the original offeror before a contract can be established between the parties. Another type of conditional acceptance occurs when a drawee promises to pay a draft upon the fulfilment of a condition, such as a shipment of goods reaching its destination on the date specified in the contract. Express A cceptance : An express acceptance occurs when a person clearly and explicitly agrees to an offer or agrees to pay a draft that is presented for payment. Examples of expressly accepting a contract include your signature, orally agreeing to the offer, shaking hands, or even exchanging business cards with the offer and accepted terms. Express acceptance is the most obvious and leaves no room for doubt that the offer was accepted. Implied Acceptance : An implied acceptance is one that is not directly stated but is demonstrated by any acts indicating a persons assent to the proposed bargain. Implied acceptance typically does not involve a contract, but rather is oral and action-based in nature. For instance, if youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ve always hired the same person to paint your house every three years and you stop by their shop and tell them that ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s been three years, they may just simply show up and paint your house, knock on the door, and you pay them. This wa s implied acceptance of the offer. The customer offered to let the painter paint his house again, and the painter accepted by going over to his house and painting it. Implied acceptance is typically only considered valid if you have a previous history of this type of acceptance already with this person. The acceptance context given below from the terms and conditions for P1 4G is of express acceptance. The context states : [11]It is important that you read these Terms carefully before signing the acceptance on the Registration Form. By signing on the Registration Form, you signify your acceptance to the Terms herein stated and to that posted online at www.p1.com.my. Consideration Consideration is where something with monetary value exchanged for an act, benefit, forbearance, interest, promise, right, or goods or services. I have found the following information from https://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/consideration-every-contract-needs-33361.html which helped me understand the different angles to this single element. The website states : One of the parties was already legally obligated to perform. For example, a police officer cannot claim the reward for capturing a wanted suspect, because the officer is already legally obligated to capture and arrest people who break the law. The promise amounts to a gift, not a contract. If your rich uncle promises to give you money to buy a house, without any strings attached, that is a promise to make a gift. If he changes his mind, you cant force him to come up with the cash because his promise was one-sided; you have not done or promised to do anything in exchange. On the other hand, if you make a down pay ment on a house in reliance on his promise, and your uncle knows about it, a court may enforce his original promise. Although it still isnt a true contract, the law recognizes that its necessary to hold people to their promises once others take action on the assumption that the promise will be kept. This legal theory called promissory estoppel treats promises as contracts if the promise was reasonably relied upon. The exchange is for past consideration. When someone promises to give you something in return for something youve already done Im going to pay you $500 because you quit smoking last year a court will not enforce the promise to make the payment because the performance (quitting smoking) wasnt bargained for. You did it without knowing that someone would come along later and offer to pay for it. The bargained-for promise is illusory. For example, the laws in Marias state prohibit firing an employee for refusing to sign a noncompete agreement. Maria signs one anyway, under threat of losing her job. The agreement is unenforceable because Marias employer cannot do what it promised (or threatened) to do. A better approach would have been to provide Maria with some benefit or compensation if she signed the agreement, rather than threatening to fire her if she didnt. In the P1.com agreement, customer knows on what to expect of the service from the information given under the charges column. The details stated are : [12]Charges 7.1. Subscriber will be billed monthly for the Service subscribed. The types of charges that Subscriber incur will vary depending on the selected Service Package and data usage by Subscriber. Billing for Service will commence on the Service Activation Date. 7.2. The first bill shall include activation fee, one month advance monthly access fee, Device charge (if applicable), pro-rated monthly access fee and other applicable charges. Access fee will be pro-rated at the 1st monthly bill if Service Activa tion Date is after the billing date. All monthly bills will include, but not be limited to, service charges, the applicable taxes and other applicable charges associated with the Service. 7.3. Monthly bills can be viewed online via the Self Care Account portal. An e-mail notification will be sent to the Subscriberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s email address as stated in the Registration Form once a new bill is generated and has been placed online in the Self Care Account portal. A fee of Ringgit Malaysia Five (RM5.00) per bill will be charged if physical printed bills are required. Request for physical printed bills must be made directly to P1. 7.4. Payment of monthly bill by Subscriber to P1 can be made via auto debit by credit card, cash and/or other modes of payment acceptable by P1. Payment via auto debit by credit card is subject to approval of P1 and Subscriber shall provide P1 with the required information of Subscriberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s credit card and any other necessary information upon request. Subscriber shall be responsible for the validity of its credit card to ensure continuous Service. P1 reserves the right to suspend Service to Subscriber in the event any payment by Subscriber credit card is not successful. 7.5. In the event the amount stated in P1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s bill or any part thereof remains unpaid after the stipulated due date, P1 reserves the right to temporarily suspend the account and charge the Subscriber interest on the sum that remains unpaid at the rate of 1.5% interest per month to be calculated from the stipulated due date to the date of full payment, or Ringgit Malaysia Ten (RM10.00) per month whichever is the greater. Acceptance of late or partial payment shall not waive P1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right to collect the full amount of all charges billed for Service. Notice of any dispute must be made by Subscriber in writing to P1 within thirty (30) days from the date of the relevant monthly bill failing which Subscriber shal l be deemed to have accepted the bill and no objection raised after the said period will be entertained. If the objections relate solely to part of the amount on the invoice, P1 may request that Subscriber pay the undisputed part of the invoice by the due date. The paid amount will be credited back to Subscriberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s account in the event that after due investigation it is found that Subscriberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s dispute and objection is valid. 7.6. P1 reserves the right to suspend or terminate provision of the Service when Subscriber fail to pay the amount indicated on the invoice nor raised any objection to same in writing by the due date without further notice nor compensation to Subscriber. 7.7. Subscriber is obligated to make reasonable inquiry in the event that Subscriber has not received any given monthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s monthly bill within the expected time period. Subscriber acknowledges that non receipt of any statement of account, any monthly bill, sta tement or any correspondence in relation to the Service subscribed shall not be a valid reason for the Subscriber to withhold or delay payment to P1. Capacity Power provided under law to a natural person or a juridical person to enter into binding contracts, and to sue and be sued in its own name. Certain class of people are exempted from the category of people who are capable of entering into contract. They are infants/minors; insane; people under the influence of drug; bankrupt and enemy alien. The capacity section can be seen under 23 of P1.com agreement as follows : Subscriberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Warranties and Acknowledgement. [13] 23.1. Subscriber hereby warrants that: he/she/it has the legal capacity to enter into these Terms and is 18 years of age (by date) or above and a resident of Malaysia; and if Subscriber is a body corporate, it has the required corporate authority to enter, execute and be bound by these Terms. 23.2. Subscriber acknowledges that he/she/it has read and fully understood all the terms and conditions herein upon accepting these Terms and agrees to be bound by the same upon P1 accepting its application for the Service. Summary From this assignment we get to learn the types of contracts and basic elements found in a valid contract. The basic elements were then supported by the provisions found in our Contracts Law 1950. An agreement was later chosen in which few of the elements are elaborated and applied to the selected agreement. The selected elements are offer, acceptance, consideration and capacity. Here we learn how every element is applied and seen in our day to day life. Every goods or services obtained is either an agreement or a contract. The obvious now reflects what learnt from this subject and practised it everywhere. From shopping, gym memberships to our various activities. Reference Contracts Act 1950 : https://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%203/Act%20136.pdf P1.com agreement : https://www.p1.com.my/images/pdf/4G%20TC%20v5.2.2.pdf https://law.freeadvice.com/general_practice/contract_law/kind_acceptance.htm https://definitions.uslegal.com/c/capacity-to-contract/ https://www.n olo.com/legal-encyclopedia/consideration-every-contract-needs-33361.html [1] Contracts Act 1950, s 2 (h) [2] Contracts Act 1950, s 10 (1) [3] Contracts Act 1950, s 2(a) [4] Contracts Act 1950, s 2 (b) [5] Contracts Act 1950, s 2 (d) [6] Contracts Act 1950, s 11 [7] Contracts Act 1950, s 14 [8] Contracts Act 1950, s 30 [9] Contracts Act 1950, s 24 [10] https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/acceptance [11] 2nd para of Terms Conditions P1.com agreement [12] P1.com agreement, no 7 [13] P1.com agreement, no 23